spacerspacer
Center for BiosecurityUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical Center
Protecting Building Occupants
Brief Survey | Site Map | Home
horizontal rule
blueprint
horizontal rule
Overview
Horizontal rule
HVAC System Basics
Horizontal rule
Building Vulnerabilities & 
Risks to Occupants
horizontal rule
Reducing Risk
horizontal rule
Benefits & Costs 
horizontal rule
Tools for Operators
horizontal rule
FAQ
horizontal rule
Additional Resources
horizontal rule
References
horizontal rule
About this site
horizontal rule

This site is funded by the Sloan Foundation.

vertical rule
||Link to this page| Share this page Slide Set | Summary PDF 
Horizontal rule

References

  1. Hitchcock PJ, Mair M, Inglesby TV, et al. Improving performance of HVAC systems to reduce exposure to aerosolized infectious agents in buildings; recommendations to reduce risks posed by biological attacks. Biosecur Bioterror. 2006; 4(1):41-54. http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org/website/resources/publications/2006_orig-articles/ 2006-03-15-improvingperformanceofhvacsystems.html. Accessed November 28, 2007.
     
  2. Office of the Director of National Intelligence. National Intelligence Estimate: The Terrorist Threat to the US Homeland. Washington, DC: Office of the Director of National Intelligence; July 2007. http://www.dni.gov/press_releases/20070717_release.pdf. Accessed November 28, 2007.
     
  3. Kowalski, W. and W. Bahnfleth. Immune building technology and bioterrorism defense. HPAC Engineering 2003;75(1): 57-62. http://www.engr.psu.edu/ae/faculty/bahnfleth/publications/immune_building_ technology.PDF. Accessed November 28, 2007.
     
  4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Report of Presidential Ad Hoc Committee for Building Health and Safety under Extraordinary Incidents on: Risk Management Guidance for Health, Safety, and Environmental Security under Extraordinary Incidents. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers; January 26, 2003. http://www.ashrae.org/content/ASHRAE/ASHRAE/ArticleAltFormat/20053810917_347.pdf. Accessed November 28, 2007.
     
  5. Lichtblau E, Meyer J. Response to terror; the investigation; jihad training details heighten attack fears; tactics: in disclosures to FBI, imprisoned Bin Laden associate describes lessons in chemical weapons, explosives and other acts of terror. Los Angeles Times. September 28, 2001; Part A; Part 1; National Desk: pg. 22.
     
  6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. An introduction to indoor air quality - Biological Pollutants. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; November 14, 2007. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/biologic.html. Accessed November 28, 2007.
     
  7. Myatt, TA, Milton, DK. Indoor pollutants: endotoxins. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 42.1–42.14.
     
  8. Platts-Mills, TA. Indoor pollutants: allergens derived from arthropods and domestic animals. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 43.1–43.15.
     
  9. Muilenberg, ML. Indoor pollutants: pollen in indoor air: sources, exposures, and health effects. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 44.1–44.18.
     
  10. Burge, HA. Indoor pollutants: the fungi. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 45.1–45.33.
     
  11. Rao, CY. Indoor pollutants: toxigenic fungi in the indoor environment. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 46.1–46.19.
     
  12. Nardell, EA. Indoor pollutants: Tuberculosis. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 47.1–47.13.
     
  13. Barry, BE. Indoor pollutants: Legionella. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 48.1–48.15.
     
  14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Indoor air facts no. 4 (revised) sick building syndrome. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; August 9, 2007. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/sbs.html. Accessed November 28, 2007.
     
  15. Persily, A. et. al. Building Retrofits to Protect Against Airborne Chemical and Biological Releases (NISTIR 7379). Washington, DC: National Institute of Standards and Technology. March 2007. http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build07/PDF/b07006.pdf. Accessed November 29, 2007.
     
  16. Burroughs, HE. Improving Filtration Effectiveness. HPAC Engineering. http://www.hpac.com/News/Article/43305/43305. Accessed November 29, 2007.
     
  17. Bearg, DW. Building Systems: HVAC Systems. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 7.1–7.18.
     
  18. Orme, MS, Persily, AK, Rock, BA. et al. Ventilation and Infiltration. In: 2001 ASHRAE Handbook; Fundamentals (SI Edition). Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 2001: 26.1-26.31.
     
  19. Emmerich, SJ, Dols, WS, Axley, JW. Natural Ventilation Review and Plan for Design and Analysis Tools (NISTIR 6781). Washington, DC: National Institute of Standards and Technology. August 2001. http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build01/PDF/b01073.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  20. Mair, M. Building Security: Biological Weapons Threats. IAQ Applications, Spring 2005: 16-17.
     
  21. Fisk WJ. Estimates of potential nationwide productivity and health benefits from better indoor environments: an update. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 4.1–4.36.
     
  22. International Facility Management Association. 2003 Corporate Facility Monitor Survey. Houston, TX: International Facility Management Association (IFMA). http://www.ifma.org/tools/monthly_media/insider/2003/03_may_16.html. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  23. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. IAQ Building Education and Assessment Model (I-BEAM) - Fundamentals of IAQ in Buildings. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; November 30, 2007.  http://www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/i-beam/text/fundamentals_of_iaq.html. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  24. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. IAQ Building Education and Assessment Model (I-BEAM) - IAQ Budgets and Accounts Module. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency; November 30, 2007.  http://www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/i-beam/text/budgets_accounts.html.  Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  25. Lowen AC, Mubareka S, Steel J, Palese P. Influenza virus transmission is dependent on relative humidity and temperature. PLoS Pathog. Oct 19 2007;3(10):1470-1476.
     
  26. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 2007.
     
  27. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Building Assessment Survey and Evaluation (BASE) Study – BAES Buildings Test Space HVAC Characteristics: Filtration Systems - Filter Ratings. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/pdfs/test_space_hvac_characteristics/thc-25.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  28. Burroughs HE. Filtration and building security. ASHRAE Journal 2005;47(4):24–29.
     
  29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Building Assessment Survey and Evaluation (BASE) Study – BASE Buildings Test Space HVAC Inspections: Particulate Filtration Systems. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/pdfs/test_space_hvac_inspections/thi-7.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  30. Persily A. Myths about building envelopes. ASHRAE Journal 1999;41(3):39–47. http://www.argonair.com/pdf/Myth%20About%20Bldg%20Env.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  31. Persily A. Building ventilation and pressurization as a security tool. ASHRAE Journal 2004;46(9):18–24.  http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/IAQanalysis/docs/Building%20Ventilation%20 and%20Pressurization%20as%20a%20Security%20Tool.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  32. American Lung Association, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, American Medical Association. Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pdfs/indoor_air_pollution.pdf. Accessed December 4, 2007.
     
  33. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Building Assessment Survey and Evaluation (BASE) Study – BASE Buildings Test Space HVAC Inspections: Outdoor Air Intake Location. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/pdfs/test_space_hvac_inspections/thi-4.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007.
     
  34. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks (DHHS (NIOSH) Pub No. 2002-139). Cincinnati, OH. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; May 2002.  http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2002-139/pdfs/2002-139.pdf.  Accessed November 29, 2007.
     
  35. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks (DHHS (NIOSH) Pub No. 2003-136). Cincinnati, OH. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; April 2003. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-136/pdfs/2003-136.pdf. Accessed December 4, 2007.
     
  36. Mills, E. Friedman, H. Powell, T. et. al. The Cost-Effectiveness of Commercial-Buildings Commissioning - A Meta-Analysis of Energy and Non-Energy Impacts in Existing Buildings and New Construction in the United States. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://eetd.lbl.gov/Emills/PUBS/PDF/Cx-Costs-Benefits.pdf. Accessed December 4, 2007.
     
  37. U.S. Homeland Security Council. U.S. National Strategy for Homeland Security. Washington, DC: U.S. Homeland Security Council; October 2007. http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/homeland/nshs/NSHS.pdf. Accessed December 4, 2007.
     
  38. Mair M, Mair JS. A complementary approach to bioterrorism prevention. Nonproliferation Review. Fall-Winter 2003;10(3):114–124.
     
  39. Seppanen, O. Fisk, WJ. A model to estimate the cost effectiveness of indoor environment improvements in office work (Paper LBNL-55447). Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; June, 2004. http://eetd.lbl.gov/ie/pdf/LBNL-55447.pdf. Accessed December 5, 2007.
     
  40. Mendell MJ, Fisk WJ, Kreiss K, et al. Improving the health of workers in indoor environments: priority research needs for a national occupational research agenda. Am J Public Health. Sep 2002; 92(9):1430-1440.
     
  41. Fisk WJ, Faulkner D, Palonen J, Seppanen O. Performance and costs of particle air filtration technologies. Indoor Air. Dec 2002; 12(4):223–234.
     
  42. Emmerich SJ, Persily AK. Energy impacts of infiltration and ventilation in U.S. office buildings using multizone airflow simulation. Paper presented at: IAQ and Energy ‘98; October 22-27, 1998; New Orleans, LA.  http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build99/PDF/b99093.pdf. Accessed December 5, 2007.
     
  43. Committee on Protecting Occupants of DoD Building Occupants from Chemical and Biological Release. Protecting Building Occupants and Operations from Biological and Chemical Airborne Threats: A Framework for Decision Making. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies; 2007.
     
  44. Committee on Materials and Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Sensors. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academies; 2005.
     
  45. Nardell, EA. Building Systems: Disinfecting Air. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 11.1–11.13.
     
  46. Underhill, D. Building Systems: Removal of Gases and Vapors. In: Spengler JD, Samet JM, McCarthy JF, eds. Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2001: 10.1–10.19.
     
  47. Office of the Director of National Intelligence. Unclassified report to Congress on the acquisition of technology relating to weapons of mass destruction and advanced conventional munitions, 1 January-31 December 2004. Washington, DC: Office of the Director of National Intelligence. http://www.dni.gov/reports/2004_unclass_report_to_NIC_DO_16Nov04.pdf. Accessed December 5, 2007.
     
  48. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Radiological Dispersal Devices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; November 26, 2007. http://www.remm.nlm.gov/rdd.htm. Accessed December 5, 2007.
     
  49. U.S. Green Building Council. Green Building Rating System for New Construction & Major Renovations. Washington, DC: U.S. Green Building Council; October 2005. https://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1095. Accessed December 5, 2007.
     
  50. U.S. Green Building Council. Green Building Rating System for Existing Buildings Upgrades, Operations and Maintenance. Washington, DC: U.S. Green Building Council; July 2005. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=913. Accessed December 5, 2007.
     
  51. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. ASHRAE Technical FAQ: How are HEPA filters certified? (68). Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 2007. http://www.ashrae.org/technology/page/336. Accessed December 6, 2007.
     
  52. Canter, DA. Remediating anthrax-contaminated sites: learning from the past to protect the future. Chemical Health and Safety. July/August 2005;12(4): 13-19.
     
  53. Jernigan DB, Raghunathan PL, Bell BP, et al. Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg Infect Dis. Oct 2002;8(10):1019-1028.
     
  54. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2007: Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; 2007.

© 2008 University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. All rights reserved.

Last updated:  June 9, 2008